FALL 2026
The Role of Culture in Peer-Initiated Sexual Abuse Perpetration Among Adolescents: A Cross-Cultural Analysis
Oluchi Ogbonna
ABSTRACT
To understand the role of culture in peer-initiated sexual abuse (PISA) perpetrated by adolescents aged 13-18, this study analyzes PISA risk factors identified in research from 8 countries over the past 15 years. Juveniles accounted for approximately 17% of sexual crimes in the U.S. in 2015 - a trend mirrored by rising rates in other nations - making PISA a significant global public health issue. Yet most research is Western-centric and focuses on victimization rather than perpetration. This study employs a socio-ecological framework to analyze research on PISA from 8 countries: the United States, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone. These countries were chosen to represent Western and non-Western regions for cross-cultural analysis. The studies examined focus on physical peer-on-peer sexual abuse among adolescents, drawing from the works of Tharp et al., who identified PISA risk factors from 191 studies, and Delago et al., who retrospectively reviewed psychological charts of juvenile PISA perpetrators and identified their key characteristics. Findings suggest sexual victimization, exposure to sexually explicit media (SEM), and family Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are common risk factors across the 8 countries studied. However, to fully understand how culture influences PISA, future research needs to explore how multiple risk factors interact and establish causal relationships beyond correlations. This will aid in developing more effective prevention strategies against adolescent PISA.
THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN PEER-INITIATED SEXUAL ABUSE PERPETRATION AMONG ADOLESCENTS: A CROSS-CULTURAL ANALYSIS
Multiple studies confirm that sexual abuse committed by adolescents against their peers is a serious global public health and social justice issue (e.g., Koumba et al., 2025; Tharp et al., 2025). In fact, recent years have seen an increase in reported cases of peer-on-peer sexual abuse (DeLago et al, 2020). This is supported by reports from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2016), which noted that in 2015, juveniles under 18 were convicted of about 17% of sexual crimes in the United States alone (Barra et al., 2017; Paez & Robinson, 2025). These trends highlight the crucial need to understand the factors that influence this behavior. In the scope of this research, sexual abuse refers to inappropriate sexual behaviors, including inappropriate touching or penetration without the consent of the other person.
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Despite the frequency of adolescent perpetration, most research on this topic focuses on victimization (Durán-Guerrero et al., 2025), creating a gap in understanding the causal factors and pathways to perpetration (Kim et al., 2025; Paez & Robinson, 2025). It is also important to note that existing literature on this subject is Western-centric (North American and European). Compared to these regions, there is limited information about minor-perpetrated sexual abuse in many African and Asian countries, which makes it difficult to fully analyze and identify any unique community and cultural factors specific to those areas. Therefore, the goal of this research is to fill these gaps by analyzing global research to identify the complex and interconnected factors contributing to adolescent sexual offenses and how culture influences them. While a set of risk factors related to peer-initiated sexual abuse among adolescents has been identified, this paper argues that the pathways to perpetration are individualistic and shaped by several interconnected factors influenced by culture. This view is supported by research from around the world (e.g., Barra et al., 2017; Delago et al., 2020). To support this argument, this analysis employs a socio-ecological framework. A model that clarifies how factors at different levels (individual, interpersonal, community, and societal) impact behavior. Here, the model will serve as a basis for analyzing findings from a diverse range of international studies from 8 countries: the United States, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone.
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This study will be divided into four sections. The first section will examine individual-level factors, including the age, gender, and history of sexual abuse of the perpetrator. The second will explore interpersonal factors, focusing on family trauma patterns and peer group dynamics. The third will analyze community and social factors, such as stereotypes and ideologies. The fourth will be a cross-cultural analysis of the identified risk factors to see if and how they are influenced by culture. Finally, the paper will conclude by highlighting gaps in current research and suggesting areas for further study based on the findings of this analysis.
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL FACTORS
Research indicates that age is a key factor in minor perpetration (Paez & Robinson, 2025; Ybarra & Thompson, 2018, as cited in Paez & Robinson, 2025; DeLago et al., 2020). According to Ybarra and Thompson (2018, as cited in Paez & Robinson, 2025), older minors are more likely to commit invasive acts (such as penetration) of sexual violence than their younger counterparts, and tend to display more sexual aggression. However, children under 12 often commit relatively subtle acts of sexual misconduct, like inappropriate touching or kissing. DeLago et al. (2020) mentioned that some of these younger offenders might simply be acting out what they have experienced or seen out of curiosity, without truly understanding what they are doing, since they are still sexually immature.
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These different age groups not only vary in the severity of perpetration but also in the types of sexual behaviors they display. For example, older children are more likely to be exposed to sexually explicit media like pornography than their younger peers (DeLago et al., 2020).
Previous research indicates that the older the child, the more likely they are to encounter factors that lead to the perpetration of sexual violence (DeLago et al., 2020).
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Besides age, research also reveals differences in the types of perpetrations committed by boys and girls. Similar to how older kids are more likely to engage in invasive acts, research shows that males are also more likely to commit invasive acts than females (Paez & Robinson, 2025). The most common individual factor strongly linked to perpetration is sexual victimization (Paez & Robinson, 2025; Kim et al., 2025; DeLago et al., 2020; Barra et al., 2017a; Koumba et al., 2025). Studies indicate that many child initiators were once victims themselves, which may lead to future perpetration (Kim et al., 2025).
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Research shows that another major personal factor is the consumption of sexually explicit media (SEM), which significantly increases the risk of sexual violence perpetration (DeLago et al., 2020; Bendixen & Kennair, 2024; Koumba et al., 2025). In a study conducted by DeLago et al. (2020), more than half of the child perpetrators studied were exposed to SEM at some point before their perpetration. The study explained that watching SEM leads to higher levels of permissive attitudes toward sexual behaviors. Essentially, SEM functions like a script, offering adolescents ideas to try out.
INTERPERSONAL (PEER & FAMILY) FACTORS
Most factors contributing to PISA perpetration do not occur in isolation (Barra et al., 2017a; Paez & Robinson, 2025). Besides individual factors, certain Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and the behaviors of people around them could influence PISA among adolescents. This study further categorizes these influences into family and peer group levels.
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Family
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Research shows that many minors who perpetrate sexual violence have experienced maltreatment and domestic violence within the family unit (Tharp et al., 2012). According to Leeb et al. (2008, as cited in Barra et al., 2017a), maltreatment of a child refers to "any act or series of acts of commission [e.g., maltreatment] or omission [e.g., neglect] by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child" (p. 11). Although not all children who experience maltreatment go on to commit crimes or offend, there is a strong correlation between ACEs and violent behaviors, including sexual violence (Tharp et al., 2012). According to Barra et al. (2017a), the Family ACE subtype (which includes maltreatment and sexual abuse) predicts more severe forms of sexual coercion in adolescents. This finding suggests that adolescents may be replicating violent behaviors observed at home (Paez & Robinson, 2025; Koumba et al., 2025).
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Neglect was identified as one of the major family-related factors contributing to sexual offenses. A study by Barra et al. (2017b) explained that a parent's absence or lack of interest in a child can negatively affect the child's psychological development, leading to unhealthy attachment behaviors and feelings of being unloved or unwanted. This may cause them to want to harm another child—often coercively—to gain a sense of control over their victim (Barra et al., 2017b). The study also revealed that neglect as a subtype was strongly linked to the type of victim chosen by sexual offenders. Additionally, the neglect ACE subtype creates a "steady [vulnerable]" state, making minors unable to relate to their peers in a healthy way (Barra et al., 2017b).
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Peer Influence
Many studies show a significant link between peer influence and PISA among adolescents. Peer groups influence adolescents in various ways; following their Norwegian high school study, Bendixen and Kennair (2024) found that PISA in male adolescents was linked to "undesirable non-physical sexual solicitation" from their female peers. The authors define solicitation as actions that communicate some form of sexual or romantic interest in ways that are seen as rude or inappropriate. According to the authors, males who are targets of this solicitation from females are more likely to commit sexual violence later on. A possible explanation for this pathway to PISA is that these non-physical sexual behaviors serve as a training ground for normalizing inappropriate conduct, increasing the likelihood of perpetration (Bendixen & Kennair, 2024).
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In a study of juvenile sexual offenders in Switzerland, it was found that peer ACEs like bullying have a positive correlation with PISA perpetration among adolescents and their connection to choosing a child victim (Barra et al., 2017a). The authors claim that these negative experiences with peers tend to create a sense of low self-esteem in minors, leading them to target children who seem weaker than themselves to gain power and control, which is similar to how the neglect ACE subtype works. Another study also found that positive attitudes toward inappropriate sexual behaviors in peer groups are linked to perpetration (Gattario et al., 2025). According to the authors, these attitudes promote sexual violence by making it seem acceptable among peers, and in attempts to fit in, these adolescents may imitate the sexual behaviors of their peers. Other studies show that peer pressure to engage in sexual activities and gang membership also increase the risk of SV perpetration (Tharp et al., 2012; Koumba et al., 2025).​
COMMUNITY AND SOCIETAL FACTORS
Certain belief systems and social norms also act as accelerants or reinforcers of sexual violence among adolescents. In many countries, there are specific stereotypes or ideologies about males and females regarding their roles in society. In Norway, a study with high school students found that a risk factor for PISA perpetration by adolescent males was believing in rape stereotypes or accepting rape myths (Bendixen & Kennair, 2024). According to the authors, rape stereotypes are beliefs that in a rape, the actions of the man are justified if he was drunk or if the woman was not injured during the act. Other beliefs held in some cultures (identified in the Norwegian and African studies), such as hostile masculinity, male dominance, and hypermasculinity, have been linked to higher risks of sexual violence among adolescents (Bendixen & Kennair, 2024; Koumba et al., 2025).
ANALYSIS OF PISA RISK FACTORS ACROSS CULTURES
To understand the role of culture on the factors contributing to PISA, this study examines the risk factors identified across 8 countries studied: the United States, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone), and South Korea, and asks the following questions:
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Are these factors universal?
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Are the interactions of these factors different across cultures?
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What makes a factor unique to a particular culture?
To address the first question, some factors have been identified in multiple studies. Sexual victimization is by far the most common factor, mentioned in studies from the USA, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, and Sub-Saharan Africa (Barra et al., 2017a; Barra et al., 2017b; Bendixen and Kennair, 2024; Paez and Robinson, 2025; Koumba et al., 2025; DeLago et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2025; Krause et al., 2022). In DeLago et al.’s (2020) study, about 47% of the child perpetrators had experienced sexual abuse. Similarly, Kim and his team found that approximately 41.8% of boys and 39.1% of girls in their sample had been victims of sexual abuse. Although no direct causal link between victimization and perpetration has been established in these studies, most highlight a strong positive correlation between the two (Barra et al., 2017a; Kim et al., 2025; DeLago et al., 2020). From these findings, it can be concluded that prior sexual victimization is a common factor across cultures.
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Beyond sexual victimization, exposure to sexually explicit media (SEM) is also a common risk factor across the reviewed studies. DeLago et al. (2020) reported that in their American sample, 58% of child initiators had been exposed to SEM before perpetration, and this exposure was strongly linked to more invasive sexual acts. This finding aligns with research from Sub-Saharan Africa, where Koumba et al. (2025) identified exposure to SEM as a key factor influencing adolescent sexual behavior. Similarly, Bendixen and Kennair (2024) listed pornography exposure among the most consistent risk factors in their Norwegian study. The pathway appears also similar across these cultures: SEM fosters permissive attitudes toward sexual behaviors and offers scripts (ideas) that vulnerable adolescents may attempt to imitate (DeLago et al. 2020).
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Additionally, family-related ACEs, such as neglect and maltreatment, displayed similar patterns across various cultural settings. Research from Switzerland (Barra et al., 2017a; Barra et al., 2017b), the United States (Paez & Robinson, 2025), South Korea (Kim et al., 2025), and
Sub-Saharan Africa (Koumba et al., 2025) all identified family ACEs as major contributors to PISA perpetration. These findings indicate that sexual victimization, SEM exposure, and family ACEs are common contributors to PISA in adolescents.
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However, regarding the second question of whether the interaction of these factors varies across cultures, there is limited research on how these factors actually interact, making it difficult to answer the question directly. Nonetheless, it can be inferred from previous studies that adolescents exposed to similar risk factors might experience different interactions depending on their cultural environment, since cultures differ in several aspects. The third question—what makes a factor unique to a specific culture—was more challenging to answer definitively because none of the studies reviewed gave a clear cultural perspective in their analysis of the risk factors.​
CONCLUSION
Despite these inconclusive findings, this cross-cultural analysis shows that while some risk factors are common, the interactions between these factors and PISA perpetration may vary across cultures. The socio-ecological framework used in this review is essential because it shows that these factors do not exist in isolation but are instead influenced by community, societal, and cultural contexts. For example, while family neglect is a common determinant across countries, societal expectations about parental supervision may shape perceptions of neglect and its psychological impact on adolescents (Barra et al., 2017b; Koumba et al., 2025).
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The hypothesis introduced at the beginning of this study—while a specific set of risk factors linked to PISA among adolescents exists, the pathways to perpetration are individualistic and influenced by multiple interconnected factors shaped by culture—is supported by the findings, although more research is needed. As previously mentioned, none of the reviewed studies thoroughly explored how the risk factors interact with each other. Instead, most merely identified correlations between factors and perpetration. For example, questions like: Does exposure to SEM affect adolescents differently depending on whether they have experienced sexual victimization? Does the impact of family neglect differ based on the presence or absence of supportive peer relationships? These questions remain unanswered. Answering them could help clarify the causal relationships between factors. Also, existing research on PISA is primarily based in the United States and Europe, with minimal representation from regions like Africa and Asia. Therefore, further research is essential to understand the complex interactions among risk factors across underrepresented regions.
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While the primary goal of this review is to analyze the influence of culture on PISA risk factors, the ultimate purpose of conducting this study is to contribute to the search for effective prevention methods for adolescent sexual perpetration. This underscores the importance of this study, adding a piece to the puzzle to understand the contributors to PISA among minors and exploring ways to implement healthy interventions. Recognizing that many perpetrators are themselves victims of numerous ACEs and in need of support, not only punishment, is the first step toward providing these types of interventions (Kim et al., 2025).
REFERENCES
Barra, S., Bessler, C., Landolt, M. A., & Aebi, M. (2017a). Patterns of adverse childhood experiences in juveniles who sexually offended. Sexual Abuse, 30(7), 803-827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217697135
Barra, S., Bessler, C., Landolt, M., & Aebi, M. (2017b). Type and timing of maltreatment influence criminal persistence in sexually abusive adolescents. Law and Human Behavior, 41(6), 556-566. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000255
Bendixen, M., & Kennair, L. E. O. (2024). Risk factors of sexual violence perpetration and victimization among adolescents: A study of Norwegian high school
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DeLago C. W, Schroeder C. M., Cooper B., Deblinger E., Dudek E., Yu R., & Finkel M. A. (2020). Children who engaged in interpersonal problematic sexual behaviors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 105(1), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104260
Gattario, K. H., Lindman, M., Lunde, C. & Skoog, T. (2025). Victim, perpetrator, or witness of peer sexual harassment? Middle-school students’ movements between roles across time. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 69(6), https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2024.241906
Kim, H., Yang, J. S., Kim, J.-W., & Jung, S. J. (2025). Interaction of sexual violence perpetration and victimization on suicide attempts in Korean adolescents on additive and multiplicative scales: a population-based cross-sectional study. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 60(4), 811–821. https://doi-
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Koumba Maguena, R.-J., Alves Jorge, S., Ngoungou, E. B., & Van den Broucke, S. (2025).
Determinants of adolescent sexual behavior in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review of in-school and out-of-school adolescents. Public Health Reviews (2107-6952), 1–15. https://doi-org.lscsproxy2.lonestar.edu/10.3389/phrs.2025.1608357
Krause, C., Barra, S., Landolt, M. A., Bessler, C., & Aebi, M. (2022). Sexualized behavior among adolescents who sexually offended. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(8), 4047–4061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02345-0
Paez, G. R., & Robinson, R. B. (2025). Examining sex-based differences in sexual violence perpetration among adolescents: A test of lifestyle exposure theory. Journal Of Child Sexual Abuse, 34(3), 258-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2025.2494000
Tharp, A. T., DeGue S., Valle L. A., Brookmeyer K. A., Massetti, G. M., & Matjasko, J. L. (2012). A systematic qualitative review of risk and protective factors for sexual violence perpetration. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 14(2), 133-167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012470031
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