FALL 2026
Rope sponge diversity and Health status in Roatán, Honduras
Yuto Goto
McLennan Community College
.jpeg)
Yuto Goto is an undergraduate researcher in the Texas Integrated Diving and Ecological Studies (TIDES) Laboratory program at McLennan Community College. His research in Roatán, Honduras examines rope sponge diversity and disease prevalence to establish baseline data for long-term reef monitoring. He plans to pursue a career in medicine and public health, integrating research and preventive care to support healthier communities.
ABSTRACT
Sponges play essential roles in Caribbean reefs through filtration, nutrient cycling, and habitat formation. Their abundance has increased where coral cover has declined. Rope sponges such as Aplysina cauliformis and Aplysina fulva are common in this region. Emerging diseases have been reported, including Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) in Aplysina spp. and Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) in Amphimedon compressa. A paucity of data on rope sponge populations and disease status in Roatán limits the ability to detect future outbreaks. This study was conducted to assess rope sponge diversity and disease prevalence in Roatán, Honduras. Data was collected from 27 to 30 May 2025 at four reef sites, using the Belt Transect method and the Randell–Robertson Marine Survey Technique. A total of 220 rope sponges were recorded. The most abundant species were A. cauliformis (n = 78), A. fulva (n = 48), Niphates amorpha (n = 37), Niphates erecta (n = 30), and Amphimedon compressa (n = 24). Most sponges were healthy (85.9%), but ARBS (3.6%), SWPD (1.8%), physical damage (3.2%), and unknown disease (5.5%) were present. Lesion material from ARBS was identified by microscopy as filamentous cyanobacteria (Lyngbya sordida) and red algae. Chi-square tests showed that species composition differed significantly among sites for both methodologies. Disease patterns were species-specific: ARBS affected A. cauliformis and A. fulva (6.3%), whereas SWPD occurred only in Amphimedon compressa (16.7%). These findings confirm the presence of sponge disease in Roatán and provide baseline data for monitoring and reef management in Caribbean reefs.
INTRODUCTION
Sponges are sessile, filter-feeding invertebrates that play critical roles in coral reef ecosystems through water filtration, nutrient cycling, habitat provision, and reef structure modification via bioerosion and cementation (Wilkinson 1987; Diaz and Rützler 2001; Wulff 2006a; Bell et al. 2013). In Caribbean reefs where coral cover has declined, sponges often dominate benthic biomass (Wulff 2006b; Bell et al. 2013). They harbor diverse microbial communities, produce chemical defenses that deter predators and limit microbial overgrowth, and their sensitivity to environmental stress makes them valuable indicators of reef health (Pawlik 2011). Despite these crucial roles, sponges remain understudied in long-term monitoring programs due to taxonomic challenges and a historical focus on corals and fishes as reef health indicators (Bell et al. 2013).
​
A plethora of diseases affecting coral reef species have been documented in recent decades, with a majority of reports focusing on corals. However, sponge diseases have also been increasingly recognized, with cases reported worldwide, including the Great Barrier Reef, the Indo-Pacific, the Mediterranean, and the Caribbean (Rützler 1988; Harvell et al. 1999; Olson et al. 2006; Webster 2007; Wulff 2007). Like corals, sponges are vulnerable to disease and bleaching, often beginning with tissue discoloration and progressing to skeletal exposure. Among rope sponges, notable diseases include Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) (Olson et al. 2006) and Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) (Angermeier et al. 2012).
​
Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) primarily affects rope sponges in the genus Aplysina, most commonly Aplysina cauliformis, a species widely distributed across the Caribbean (Olson et al. 2006; Gochfeld et al. 2007; Thacker et al. 2010; Loh and Pawlik 2014). Upright branching sponges such as A. cauliformis create important three-dimensional habitat for associated organisms and help stabilize reef substrates, but their morphology also makes them especially vulnerable to breakage during storms (Segura-García et al. 2024). As one of the most abundant rope sponges on many Caribbean reefs, A. cauliformis also plays key roles in nutrient cycling and chemically mediated species interactions, so disease outbreaks in this species can have disproportionate effects on reef communities (Easson et al. 2013; Olson et al. 2014; Gochfeld et al. 2019).
​
Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) was first reported in the Bahamas in 2004 and has since been recorded at multiple sites throughout the Caribbean basin, including the Florida Keys, Belize, Panama, Curaçao, and Dominica. (Olson et al. 2006; Gochfeld et al. 2007; Olson et al.2014). The disease is characterized by a rust-colored band of tissue necrosis that is eventually colonized by algae and microorganisms (Olson et al. 2006; Gochfeld et al. 2019). The red band lesions are dominated by filamentous cyanobacteria (Leptolyngbya spp.), which produce the distinctive coloration. However, a Leptolyngbya strain isolated from diseased tissue did not reproduce ARBS signs in contact transmission trials, so its etiological role remains uncertain (Olson et al. 2014). Recent studies suggest ARBS is linked to dysbiosis, with shifts in microbial communities and multiple bacteria involved rather than a single pathogen (Olson et al. 2014; Monti et al. 2021). Field and experimental studies demonstrate that ARBS is primarily transmitted by direct contact between sponge branches, with less frequent waterborne transmission (Olson et al. 2006; Easson et al. 2013). Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) spreads rapidly through direct contact between sponge branches and can cause significant sublethal effects on Aplysina spp. Infected sponges exhibit changes in physiology, biochemistry, and immune function, along with reduced growth, biomass loss, altered secondary metabolite production, and structural weakening that increases the risk of breakage during storm events (Gochfeld et al. 2012a, 2012b; Easson et al. 2013; Olson et al. 2014; Gochfeld et al. 2019). These impacts indicate that ARBS has the potential to reduce sponge biomass and alter reef community structure.
​
Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) primarily affects the erect rope sponge, Amphimedon compressa, which is widely distributed across Florida, the Bahamas, and the Caribbean. This tall branching rope sponge filters large volumes of water and adds vertical structure to reef habitats (Wulff 2006a), creating habitats for associated invertebrates and fishes. Declines in this species can alter benthic community structure and reduce habitat availability (Pawlik 2011; Edmunds et al. 2020). The disease was observed at Dry Rocks Reef in 2007 and later at Conch Reef in 2009–2010. It is characterized by large, irregular white patches with sharply separated boundaries from the surrounding red tissue. Although spongin-boring bacteria were frequently associated with diseased tissue, their role in causing SWPD remains unclear, as transplantation experiments failed to induce disease (Angermeier et al. 2012). Current evidence indicates that SWPD is more likely connected to microbial community shifts than to specific pathogens, consistent with observations from other sponge and coral diseases (Webster and Taylor 2012; Angermeier et al. 2012). In Amphimedon compressa, Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) produces distinct white patches, extensive tissue loss, and partial bleaching that weaken overall sponge health and biomass. These effects have the potential to reduce sponge abundance and alter benthic community structure (Angermeier et al. 2012).
​
​Although less studied than coral diseases, sponge diseases have been documented in multiple regions of the wider Caribbean. Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) was first documented in the Bahamas, where prevalence at Norman’s Reef ranged from 3.2–12.2% between 2004 and 2005. At Rainbow Gardens, ARBS was absent until January 2005, after which prevalence increased to levels comparable to Norman’s Reef (Olson et al. 2006). Later monitoring at Big Point and Rainbow Gardens recorded 3.3–11% diseased across 2010–2012 (Easson et al. 2013). Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) was first documented in the Florida Keys, where 18% of Amphimedon compressa at Dry Rocks Reef were affected during 2007–2010, with 21.2% tissue bleaching per sponge (Angermeier et al. 2012). These studies show that sponge diseases can significantly impact rope sponge populations. However, comparatively little quantitative baseline information is available from the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef (MBR), the second-largest coral reef system in the world, extending from the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula to the Honduran Bay Islands (Gerholdt 2016). Within the Honduran portion of the MBR, Roatán is a well-known diving destination, and its reefs support tourism, fisheries, and local livelihoods; despite this ecological and socioeconomic importance, baseline quantitative data on rope sponge populations and disease status in Roatán remain limited. Coral reef health is highly sensitive to anthropogenic impacts such as pollution, runoff, tourism, artificial beach construction, and mangrove loss, which increase coral susceptibility to disease (Fabricius 2005). The Bay Islands, including Roatán, are popular diving destinations for national and international tourists, which may intensify these stressors and highlight the need for baseline data on rope sponge populations and disease status. Citizen science resources such as the Roatán Reef Guide document 14 rope sponge species in the Bay Islands (Fowler 2025; Charteris 2012) but lack quantitative data on diversity and health status. As a result, the ecological role and vulnerability of Roatán’s sponge communities remain poorly understood. Regular monitoring is essential to detect ecological shifts, track disease outbreaks, and inform conservation strategies, but the paucity of quantitative baseline data on rope sponge populations and disease status in Roatán limits the ability to detect future outbreaks (Bell et al. 2013). This study was conducted to assess rope sponge diversity and disease prevalence in Roatán, Honduras.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study site. – The Mesoamerican Reef is located in the Caribbean Sea off the eastern coast of Central America, stretching nearly 900 kilometers. This study was carried out near Roatán Island off the eastern Honduran coast (Fig. 1). Four dive sites were surveyed along the island: My Choice (MC), Bear’s Den (BD), Butcher’s Bank (BB), and Baby Stan Steinberg (BS).
​
Survey methods. – Each dive site was surveyed on two separate days between May 27 and 30, 2025. Two survey methodologies were employed concurrently at each site; the Belt Transect (BT) method and the Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique (RRMST) (Kroll et al. 2018). The BT and RRMST teams began on opposite sides of the mooring point and swam in opposite directions to minimize overlap and reduce duplicate observations.
​
Belt Transect (BT) method. – Two researchers surveyed rope sponge populations along 30 m transect lines deployed parallel to the reef slope. Surveys were conducted at depths of 9.1–18.3 m. Divers swam the transect line while holding a meter stick perpendicular to the line to delineate a 2-m-wide belt (1 m on each side). Within this belt, all rope sponges were identified and counted; health status and depth were also recorded. On the second survey day, the transect line was deployed on the opposite side of the mooring point using the same transect length, orientation, and depth range.
​
Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique (RRMST). – Two researchers began at 18.3 m with the mooring line kept to their left for orientation. Divers swam for 10 minutes parallel to the shoreline, then ascended 1.5 m and reversed course. This zig-zag sequence was repeated until the dive concluded between 6.1 and 9.1 m (Kroll et al. 2018). During each survey, all rope sponges were identified and counted; health status and depth were also recorded (Fig. 2). On the second survey day, the zig-zag survey was conducted on the opposite side of the mooring point using the same starting depth, swim time, ascent interval, and terminal depth range, with the mooring line kept to the divers’ right for orientation.
​
Rope sponge health assessment. – For each rope sponge encountered, species, depth (m), and health status were recorded. Health status was assigned in situ based on external visual characteristics consistent with previous studies (Olson et al. 2006; Angermeier et al. 2012; Easson et al. 2013; Gochfeld et al. 2019). Health status was categorized as: 1) healthy – no lesions were observed on the individual rope sponge; 2) Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) – lesions were characterized by a rust-colored band of tissue necrosis that was often colonized by algae and microorganisms (Olson et al. 2006; Gochfeld et al. 2019); 3) Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) – distinct white patches, tissue loss, and partial bleaching that weakened overall sponge health and biomass (Angermeier et al. 2012); 4) physical damage – breakage, abrasion, or missing tissue consistent with storm impact, diver contact, or predation; and 5) unknown disease – abnormal tissue discoloration or lesions that could not be classified as ARBS or SWPD.
​
Sample collection and microscopy. – When rope sponges were identified, a meter stick was positioned perpendicular to their base. The total branch length was measured and divided by the number of branches to estimate average branch size (cm). When Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) was encountered, algae samples were collected from the lesion margin using a comb and forceps, placed in labeled plastic seal-top bags, and transported to the laboratory. In the laboratory, samples were sectioned and mounted on slides for microscopic identification.
.jpg)
Figure 1. Study sites in the Mesoamerican Reef near Roatán, Honduras. A) Location of Roatán within the Bay Islands, including Útila, Guanaja, and Cayos Cochinos. B) Four dive sites were surveyed twice between 27 and 30 May 2025: My Choice (MC), Bear’s Den (BD), Butcher’s Bank (BB), and Baby Stan Steinberg (BS).
.png)
Figure 2. A depiction of the Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique (RRMST) used to record data during each dive (Kroll et al. 2018).
Statistical analyses. – Chi-square tests of independence (χ²) were used to examine associations between sponge species and dive sites, sponge species and health status, and sponge counts recorded by the two survey methodologies (Belt Transect vs. Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique). When significant associations were detected (P < 0.05), adjusted residuals from crosstabulation tables were used as post hoc tests to identify categories that differed significantly from expected values. Sponge length measurements were analyzed using nonparametric tests: Kruskal–Wallis for comparisons across multiple sites and Mann–Whitney U for comparisons between two sites. Spearman rank correlations were used to assess relationships between sponge length and depth. All statistical analyses were performed in IBM SPSS Statistics, version 31.0.
RESULTS
During the survey, 220 Eight rope sponge species were recorded. The most abundant were Aplysina cauliformis (n = 78), Aplysina fulva (n = 48), Niphates amorpha (n = 37), Niphates erecta (n = 30), and Amphimedon compressa (n = 24) (Fig. 3). Three species were rare, with only one individual each: Siphonodictyon xamaycaense, Niphates alba, and Iotrochota birotulata (Fig. 4). Overall, 85.9% (n = 189) of rope sponges were healthy. Prevalence of disease and damage was 14.1% (n = 31), including Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) at 3.6% (n = 8), Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) at 1.8% (n = 4), physical damage at 3.2% (n = 7), and unknown disease at 5.5% (n = 12) (Fig. 5). Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) ranged from 2.6% in A. cauliformis (n = 6) to 4.2% in A. fulva (n = 2), while Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) was observed only in Amphimedon compressa at 16.7% (n = 4). Physical damage occurred in A. cauliformis at 6.4% (n = 5), N. amorpha at 2.7% (n = 1), and N. erecta at 3.3% (n= 1). Unknown disease affected A. cauliformis at 5.1% (n = 4) and A. fulva at 16.7% (n = 8).
.jpg)
.png)
Figure 4. Rope sponge species composition (N = 220) across all study sites in Roatán, Honduras. Data represent pooled results from all survey methods. Aplysina cauliformis was the most abundant species (n = 78), followed by Aplysina fulva (n = 48), Niphates amorpha (n = 37), Niphates erecta (n = 30), and Amphimedon compressa (n = 24).
.png)
Figure 5. Rope sponge health status in Roatán (N = 220). Data represent pooled survey results. Most sponges (85.9%) were healthy; fewer showed Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS; n = 8), Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD; n = 4), physical damage (n = 7), or unknown disease (n
= 12).
Chi-square analysis revealed significant differences in rope sponge distribution among dive sites using both the Belt Transect method (χ² = 34.425, df = 12, N = 101, P < 0.001) (Fig. 6) and the Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique (χ² = 38.677, df = 12, N = 116, P < 0.001) (Fig. 7). With the Belt Transect method, Aplysina cauliformis and Niphates erecta were more prevalent at Baby Stan Steinberg and My Choice, respectively. In contrast, Aplysina fulva was less prevalent at My Choice, and Niphates amorpha was absent from Baby Stan Steinberg. Using the Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique revealed that N. erecta was more prevalent at My Choice, while A. cauliformis was less prevalent at Butcher’s Bank. A. fulva and N. amorpha were evenly distributed across all sites, whereas Amphimedon compressa was absent from both Baby Stan Steinberg and My Choice.
.png)
Figure 6. Rope sponge species across four dive sites using the Belt Transect (BT) method: My Choice (MC), Baby Stan Steinberg (BS), Bear’s Den (BD), and Butcher’s Bank (BB). A chi-square test indicated significant differences among species distributions (χ² = 34.425, df = 12, N
= 101, P < 0.001).
.png)
Figure 7. Rope sponge species across four dive sites using the Randell–Robertson Marine Survey Technique (RRMST): My Choice (MC), Baby Stan Steinberg (BS), Bear’s Den (BD), and Butcher’s Bank (BB). A chi-square test indicated significant differences among species distributions (χ² = 38.677, df = 12, N = 116, P < 0.001).
Representative Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) and Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) lesions are shown in Fig. 8. These images illustrate the gross lesion morphology observed in situ.
.jpg)
Figure 8. Visual representation of the diseased rope sponge species: (A) Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) on Aplysina cauliformis (B) ARBS on Aplysina fulva (C) Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) on Amphimedon compressa.
Rust-colored lesions characteristic of Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) were observed on Aplysina cauliformis and Aplysina fulva (Fig. 8). Microscopy visually identified a filamentous cyanobacterium, Lyngbya sordida (Oscillatoriales), and a red algae within lesion samples (Fig. 9). Identification of the algal component was confirmed by M. Zubia (Univ. of French Polynesia, pers. comm., 2025).
.jpg)
Figure 9. (A) Sample identified as Lyngbya sordida (Oscillatoriales). (B) Sample identified as a red algae. (M. Zubia, Univ. of French Polynesia, pers. comm., 2025).
A chi-square test revealed a significant association between species and health status using the Belt Transect method (χ² = 40.131, df = 12, N = 100, P < 0.001) (Fig. 10), but no significant association using the Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique (χ² = 4.414, df = 8, N = 105, P = 0.818) (Fig. 11). With the Belt Transect method, Amphimedon compressa showed a higher prevalence of Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD), while Aplysina cauliformis and Aplysina fulva exhibited higher prevalence of Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) and physical damage. For both methodologies, counts of unknown disease were excluded from analysis.
.png)
Figure 10. Rope sponge health status by species using the Belt Transect (BT) method. A chi-square test indicated significant differences between species and health categories (χ² = 40.131, df = 12, N = 100, P < 0.001). Rope sponges with unknown disease were excluded.
.png)
Figure 11. Rope sponge health status by species using the Randell–Robertson Marine Survey Technique (RRMST). A chi-square test revealed no significant association between species and health categories (χ² = 4.414, df = 8, N = 105, P = 0.818). Rope sponges with unknown disease were excluded.
A chi-square test comparing the two survey methods indicated no significant difference in species counts between the Belt Transect method and Randell-Robertson Marine Survey Technique (χ² = 9.143, df = 4, N = 216, P = 0.058). Kruskal–Wallis tests revealed no significant differences in length among sites for Amphimedon compressa (χ² = 3.699, df = 2, P = 0.157), Aplysina cauliformis (χ² = 0.762, df = 3, P = 0.859), Aplysina fulva (χ² = 7.293, df = 3, P = 0.063), and Niphates amorpha (χ² = 7.76, df = 3, P = 0.051). A Mann–Whitney U test indicated Niphates erecta was significantly longer at Butcher’s Bank than at My Choice (W = 148, Z = 3.046, P = 0.002). Overall, most species showed no differences in length among sites, although individual lengths varied widely within sites. Spearman rank correlations showed no significant relationship between length and depth for Amphimedon compressa (ρ = 0.005, N = 20, P = 0.985), A. cauliformis (ρ = –0.153, N = 69, P = 0.211), A. fulva (ρ = 0.056, N = 45, P = 0.713), and N. amorpha (ρ = –0.259, N = 33, P = 0.146). In contrast, N. erecta showed a significant negative correlation (ρ = –0.434, N = 29, P = 0.019), with lengths decreasing at greater depths.
DISCUSSION
This study provides baseline data on rope sponge diversity and health in Roatán, Honduras. The rope sponge community was dominated by Aplysina cauliformis (35.5%) and Aplysina fulva (21.8%), followed by Niphates amorpha (16.8%), Niphates erecta (13.6%), and Amphimedon compressa (10.9%); the five most abundant species accounted for 217 of 220 individuals (98.6%). Most individuals were healthy (85.9%), but the presence of rope sponge diseases such as Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS, 3.6%) and Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD, 1.8%) indicated that sponge diseases are present in this region. These findings are consistent with previous reports of sponge disease across the Caribbean (Olson et al. 2006; Angermeier et al. 2012; Easson et al. 2013) and suggest that even low disease prevalence can represent early signs of ecological stress in sponge-dominated reef systems. Even low disease prevalence can be concerning as ARBS spreads through direct contact between sponge branches, and storms may increase transmission by breaking and dispersing fragments (Olson et al. 2006; Easson et al. 2013; Gochfeld et al. 2019; Monti et al. 2021). However, because species diversity and disease prevalence were measured during a single week of fieldwork, these data represent short-term conditions and may not capture broader spatial or temporal variation. Continued monitoring and molecular analyses are needed to better characterize sponge community dynamics and disease processes in this region.
​
For both survey methods, Aplysina cauliformis was the most prevalent species, particularly at Baby Stan Steinberg and Bear’s Den. Baby Stan Steinberg in West Bay contained sandy-bottom passages, small caverns, and steep coral walls that provided stable surfaces and consistent water movement suitable for sponge growth. Aplysina fulva was more abundant at Butcher’s Bank, a terraced reef with sloping walls and sandy flats that offered broad substrate areas for attachment and expansion. Niphates erecta occurred primarily at My Choice, where a relatively steep wall below a flat forereef/reef crest provided increased vertical habitat space (Mar Dive Guides 2019). Niphates amorpha was recorded at most sites but was absent from Baby Stan Steinberg in the Belt Transect method. Amphimedon compressa was not observed at Baby Stan Steinberg under either method. These distribution patterns can reflect habitat characteristics such as topography, water flow, and light availability, which influence sponge settlement and growth (Diaz and Rützler 2001; Wulff 2006; Bell et al. 2013). However, species absences at certain sites may limit site-level comparisons and likely reflect small sample size or natural variation. Increasing replication and measuring habitat variables such as current flow, substrate type, and light intensity would help clarify factors influencing species distribution. Future surveys should expand both methods to increase sample size and reduce site variation.
​
Aplysina spp. were more frequently affected by Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS), consistent with reports that A. cauliformis and Aplysina fulva are particularly susceptible (Olson et al. 2006; Gochfeld et al. 2019; Monti et al. 2021). Amphimedon compressa was the only species showing Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD), consistent with findings that SWPD primarily affects Amphimedon compressa populations in the Caribbean (Angermeier et al. 2012). The absence of ARBS and SWPD in Niphates spp. supports evidence that disease susceptibility among sponges is host-specific (Easson et al. 2013; Olson et al. 2014). The species–health association differed by survey method, with the Belt Transect (BT) method detecting an association between species and health status, whereas the Randell–Robertson Marine Survey Technique (RRMST) did not. Under the Belt Transect, Amphimedon compressa showed a higher prevalence of SWPD, while A. cauliformis and A. fulva exhibited higher prevalence of ARBS and physical damage. Despite these patterns, statistical comparisons in health among species were limited by the small sample size and the predominance of healthy individuals. In addition, twelve rope sponges with unknown disease were excluded from the species-by-health analyses because they could not be reliably assigned to ARBS or SWPD, which may have limited detection of differences among species. This discrepancy may reflect greater depth and habitat variation under RRMST (18.3 m to 6.1–9.1 m) relative to BT (9.1–18.3 m), which could affect species–health patterns when data are pooled across depths. Moreover, most unknown disease observations occurred under RRMST (11 of 12 total), and excluding these individuals from species-by-health analyses further reduced sample size. A.cauliformis and A. fulva appeared more susceptible to ARBS, whereas Amphimedon compressa appeared more susceptible to SWPD, suggesting potential species-level variation in disease resistance.
​
Microscopic observation of Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) lesions revealed cyanobacteria and red algae, both verified by M. Zubia (Univ. of French Polynesia, pers. comm., 2025). ARBS in Aplysina spp. has been described as a prokaryotic polymicrobial disease involving multiple microbial symbionts rather than a single pathogen (Olson et al. 2014; Monti et al. 2021). Cyanobacteria should not be identified by morphology alone; molecular sequencing is required for confirmation (D. Gochfeld, Univ. of Mississippi, pers. comm., 2025). Future studies should use molecular and genetic analyses to identify microbes linked to ARBS and clarify their role in the disease.
​
Most rope sponge species showed no significant length differences among dive sites (P > 0.05), suggesting broadly similar conditions across the surveyed reefs in Roatán. However, Niphates erecta was significantly longer at Butcher’s Bank and showed a negative correlation with depth, indicating larger individuals in shallower water. This pattern likely reflects greater light, water flow, and substrate stability that enhance sponge growth (Diaz and Rützler 2001; Wulff 2006; Bell et al. 2013). Variation in sponge length and small sample sizes at some sites may have reduced statistical accuracy and limited comparisons. Future studies should include additional sites and a wider depth range to increase sample size, while measuring environmental factors such as light and water flow to better understand depth-related growth.
CONCLUSION
LITERATURE CITED
This study establishes baseline quantitative data on rope sponge diversity and health status across four reef sites in Roatán, Honduras, using Belt Transects and the Randell–Robertson Marine Survey Technique. Eight rope sponge species were recorded (n = 220), with Aplysina cauliformis (n = 78) and Aplysina fulva (n = 48) most abundant. Most individuals were healthy (85.9%), while 14.1% showed disease or damage, including Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS) (3.6%), Sponge White Patch Disease (SWPD) (1.8%), physical damage (3.2%), and unknown disease (5.5%). Although both survey methods recorded comparable total numbers of rope sponge individuals, species composition differed significantly between methods. Microscopy of ARBS lesion material indicated cyanobacteria and red algae, but morphology alone is insufficient for definitive identification. Future studies should increase seasonal replication, while also incorporating molecular diagnostics and habitat covariates to resolve unknown diseases. These baseline records are necessary to detect departures from current conditions and to evaluate future changes in community composition and disease prevalence over time.
Angermeier, H., V. Glöckner, J. R. Pawlik, N. L. Lindquist & U. Hentschel. 2012. Sponge white patch disease affecting the Caribbean sponge Amphimedon compressa. Dis. Aquat. Org. 99(2):95–102.
Bell, J. J. B., S. K. Davy, T. Jones, M. W. Taylor & N. S. Webster. 2013. Could some coral reefs become sponge reefs as our climate changes? Glob. Change Biol. 19(9):2613–2624.
Charteris, M. 2012. Caribbean Reef Life of the Bay Islands, Honduras.
Diaz, M. C. & K. Rützler. 2001. Sponges: an essential component of Caribbean coral reefs. Bull.
Mar. Sci. 69:535–546.
Easson, C. G., M. Slattery, H. G. Momm, et al. 2013. Exploring individual- to population-level impacts of disease on coral reef sponges: using spatial analysis to assess the fate, dynamics, and transmission of Aplysina Red Band Syndrome (ARBS). PLoS ONE 8:e79976.
Edmunds PJ, Coblentz M, Wulff J. 2020. A quarter-century of variation in sponge abundance and community structure on shallow reefs in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Marine Biology. 167:135.
Fabricius K. E. 2005. Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50(2):125-146.
Fowler, J. 2025. Rope Sponges. Roatan Reef Guide. Available from: https://www.roatanreefguide.com/rope-sponges. (Accessed 11 Mar. 2025).
Gerholdt, R. 2016. Mesoamerican Reef. World Wildlife Fund. http://www.worldwildlife.org/places/mesoamerican-reef/. (Accessed 19 Jan. 2026).
Gochfeld DJ, Schlöder C, Thacker RW. 2007. Sponge community structure and disease prevalence on coral reefs in Bocas del Toro, Panama. In: Custódio MR, Lôbo-Hajdu G, Hajdu E, Muricy G, editors. Porifera Research: Biodiversity, Innovation and Sustainability. Série Livros 28. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil): Museu Nacional. p. 335–343.
Gochfeld, D. J., C. G. Easson, C. J. Freeman, R. W. Thacker & J. B. Olson. 2012a. Disease and nutrient enrichment as potential stressors on the Caribbean sponge Aplysina cauliformis and its bacterial symbionts. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 456:101–111.
Gochfeld DJ, Kamel HN, Olson JB, Thacker RW. 2012. Trade-offs in defensive metabolite production but not ecological function in healthy and diseased sponges. J Chem Ecol. 38(5):451–462.
Gochfeld, D. J., D. A. Renegar, M. C. Díaz & J. B. Olson. 2019. Histological and ultrastructural features of Aplysina cauliformis affected by Aplysina Red Band Syndrome. Invertebr.
Biol. 138(2):e12247.
Harvell, C. D., K. Kim, J. M. Burkholder, et al. 1999. Emerging marine diseases—climate links and anthropogenic factors. Science 285:1505–1510.
Kroll ML, Rodriguez BA, Edie AC, Phelps KL, Hamilton DE, Randell SM, Lockwood SA.
2018. Poriferan abundance is negatively associated with coral health in the Mesoamerican Reef. Tex J Sci. 70(1): Article 7.
Loh, T.-L. & J. R. Pawlik. 2014. Chemical defenses and resource trade-offs structure sponge communities on Caribbean coral reefs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111:4151–4156.
Mar Dive Guides. 2019. Roatan: Diving, Lodging, and Entertainment Guide. 2019th ed. Mar Dive Guides.
Monti, M., A. Giorgi, C. G. Easson, D. J. Gochfeld & J. B. Olson. 2021. Transmission studies and the composition of prokaryotic communities associated with healthy and diseased Aplysina cauliformis sponges suggest that Aplysina Red Band Syndrome is a prokaryotic polymicrobial disease. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 97(12): fiab164.
Olson, J. B., D. J. Gochfeld & M. Slattery. 2006. Aplysina Red Band Syndrome: a new threat to Caribbean sponges. Dis. Aquat. Org. 71(2):163–168.
Olson, J. B., R. W. Thacker & D. J. Gochfeld. 2014. Molecular community profiling reveals impacts of time, space, and disease status on the bacterial community associated with the Caribbean sponge Aplysina cauliformis. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 87:268–279.
Pawlik, J. R. 2011. The chemical ecology of sponges on Caribbean reefs: natural products shape natural systems. BioScience 61(11):888–898.
Rützler, K. 1988. Mangrove sponge disease induced by cyanobacterial symbionts: failure of a primitive immune system? Dis. Aquat. Org. 5:143–149.
Segura-García I, Olson JB, Gochfeld DJ, Brandt ME, Chaves-Fonnegra A. 2024. Severe hurricanes increase recruitment and gene flow in the clonal sponge Aplysina cauliformis. Mol Ecol. 33(7):e17307. doi:10.1111/mec.17307.
Thacker, R. W., M. C. Díaz, N. J. de Voogd, et al. 2010. Preliminary assessment of sponge biodiversity on Saba Bank, Netherlands Antilles. PLoS ONE 5:e9622.
Webster, N. S. 2007. Sponge disease: a global threat? Environ. Microbiol. 9:1363–1375.
Webster, N. S. & M. W. Taylor. 2012. Marine sponges and their microbial symbionts: love and other relationships. Environ. Microbiol. 14:335–346.
Wilkinson, C. 1987. Interocean differences in size and nutrition of coral reef sponge populations.
Science 236:1654–1657.
Wulff J. 2006a. Ecological interactions of marine sponges. Canadian Journal of Zoology.
84(2):146–166. doi:10.1139/Z06-019.
Wulff, J. 2006b. Rapid diversity and abundance decline in a Caribbean coral reef sponge community. Biol. Conserv. 127:167–176.
Wulff, J. 2007. Disease prevalence and population density over time in three common Caribbean coral reef sponge species. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 87:1715–1720.
CONTINUE READING
_edited.png)
Sasha Joy
Emporia State University
Federico García Lorca’s play, La Casa de Bernarda Alba/The House of Bernarda Alba, can be considered a strong economic and political critique of the rise of the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco and the fascist movement in 1930s Spain. García Lorca’s play was not staged in Spain until 1950 after the eventual fascist victory; after the author’s death in 1936, his work was burned and banned (Columbia 250). Despite the fact that the Axis powers ultimately lost the Second World War, other Western powers, including the United States, continued to support Franco after World War II, ignoring his oppressive regime and allowing fascism to reign in Spain until the 1970s (Graham 166).
Aaliyah Linton
Lone Star College–Kingwood
Throughout history, women who challenged the limits of socially accepted behavior have often been reinterpreted according to the prevailing ideological framework of the era. This research explores how the transition from witchcraft accusations in the seventeenth century to hysteria diagnoses in the nineteenth century reflected evolving patriarchal methods of controlling women, with an aim to identify the shifting but continuous roles of religious and medical authorities in shaping that control.
.png)
Isabella McCord
University of North Texas
Violently, Death descends on an unsuspecting monk. He who should be mostly ideally positioned to receive God’s generosity shakes with fear as he realizes the immediate reality of his fate. This is the image of death Hans Holbein the Younger presents to us in his print of Der Münch (The Monk) from his 1523 Totentanz series (Dance of Death; figure 1). A series deeply rooted in German artistic tradition since the Middle Ages, the Totentanz depicts members of different social classes—from laborers to monarchs—as they encounter a masculine Death.